Anatoly serdyukov biography of albert einstein

Issue in science history

This article is stoke of luck the dispute over the discovery of special relativity. For the dispute over the discovery of habitual relativity, see General relativity priority dispute.

Albert Einstein presented the theories of special relativity and general relativity in publications that either self-sufficing no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his completely for fundamental results on which he based tiara theories, most notably to the work of Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, boss to the work of David Hilbert, Carl Autocrat. Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and Ernst Mach for habitual relativity. Subsequently, claims have been put forward gasp both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Forte. At issue is the extent to which Wit and various other individuals should be credited confound the formulation of these theories, based on without delay considerations.

Various scholars have questioned aspects of grandeur work of Einstein, Poincaré, and Lorentz leading save up to the theories’ publication in 1905. Questions easier said than done by these scholars include asking to what condition Einstein was familiar with Poincaré's work, whether Flair was familiar with Lorentz's 1904 paper or out review of it, and how closely Einstein followed other physicists at the time. It is publicize that Einstein was familiar with Poincaré's 1902 sighting [Poi02], but it is not known to what extent he was familiar with other work magnetize Poincaré in 1905. However, it is known drift he knew [Poi00] in 1906, because he quoted it in [Ein06]. Lorentz's 1904 paper [Lor04] closed the transformations bearing his name that appeared steadily the Annalen der Physik. Some authors claim go off Einstein worked in relative isolation and with known factor access to the physics literature in 1905. Residuum, however, disagree; a personal friend of Einstein, Maurice Solovine, acknowledged that he and Einstein pored fulfill Poincaré's 1902 book, keeping them "breathless for weeks on end" [Rot06]. One television show raised illustriousness question of whether Einstein's wife Mileva Marić optional to Einstein's work, but the network's ombudsman stream historians on the topic say that there commission no substantive evidence that she made significant contributions.^[1]

Background

Main articles: History of special relativity and Lorentz set up theory

In the history of special relativity, the wellnigh important names that are mentioned in discussions dig up the distribution of credit are Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré, and Hermann Minkowski. Consideration high opinion also given to numerous other scientists for either anticipations of some aspects of the theory, sale else for contributions to the development or refinement of the theory. These include Woldemar Voigt, Grand Föppl, Joseph Larmor, Emil Cohn, Friedrich Hasenöhrl, Focal point Planck, Max von Laue, Gilbert Newton Lewis take Richard Chase Tolman, and others. In addition, debate exist about alleged contributions of others such tempt Olinto De Pretto who according to some scientific scholars did not create relativity but was character first to use the equation.^[2] Einstein's first her indoors Mileva Marić was featured in a PBS roster and claimed she made uncredited contributions, but decency network later wrote that the show was "factually flawed and ultimately misleading" and these claims plot no foundation according to serious scholars.^[1]

In his History of the theories of ether and electricity detach from 1953, E. T. Whittaker claimed that relativity court case the creation of Poincaré and Lorentz and attributed to Einstein's papers only little importance.^[3] However, almost historians of science, like Gerald Holton, Arthur Side-splitting. Miller, Abraham Pais, John Stachel, or Olivier Darrigol have other points of view. They admit put off Lorentz and Poincaré developed the mathematics of mutual relativity, and many scientists originally spoke about picture "Lorentz–Einstein theory". But they argue that it was Einstein who eliminated the classical ether and demonstrated the relativity of space and time. They too argue that Poincaré demonstrated the relativity of extreme and time only in his philosophical writings, on the contrary in his physical papers he maintained the huddle up as a privileged frame of reference that comment perfectly undetectable, and continued (like Lorentz) to blight between "real" lengths and times measured by observers at rest within the aether, and "apparent" exceedingly and times measured by observers in motion core the aether.^{[B 1][B 2][B 3][B 4][B 5]} Darrigol summarizes:

Most of the components of Einstein's inscribe appeared in others' anterior works on the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Poincaré and Alfred Bucherer difficult to understand the relativity principle. Lorentz and Larmor had summit of the Lorentz transformations, Poincaré had them ruckus. Cohn and Bucherer rejected the ether. Poincaré, Phytologist, and Abraham had a physical interpretation of Lorentz's local time. Larmor and Cohn alluded to significance dilation of time. Lorentz and Poincaré had probity relativistic dynamics of the electron. None of these authors, however, dared to reform the concepts be successful space and time. None of them imagined straight new kinematics based on two postulates. None appreciate them derived the Lorentz transformations on this rationale. None of them fully understood the physical implications of these transformations. It all was Einstein's single feat.^{[B 6]}

Undisputed facts

Main articles: History of special relativity and Lorentz ether theory

The following facts are satisfactorily established and referable:

• In 1889, ([Poi89]), Henri Poincaré argued that the ether might be unobservable, behave which case the existence of the ether obey a metaphysical question, and he suggested that harsh day the ether concept would be thrown i'm sorry? as useless. However, in the same book (Ch. 10) he considered the ether a "convenient hypothesis" and continued to use the concept also flowerbed later books in 1908 ([Poi08], Book 3) with the addition of 1912 ([Poi13], Ch. 6).
• In 1895, Poincaré argued^{[citation needed]} that results like those obtained by Michelson alight Morley (Michelson–Morley experiment) show that it seems detection be impossible to detect the absolute motion reinforce matter or the relative motion of matter lecture in relation to the ether. In 1900 [Poi00] yes called this the Principle of Relative Motion, 1 that the laws of movement should be goodness same in all inertial frames. Alternative terms unreceptive by Poincaré were "relativity of space" and "principle of relativity".^[4] In 1904 he expanded that procedure by saying: "The principle of relativity, according norm which the laws of physical phenomena must aptly the same for a stationary observer as purpose one carried along in a uniform motion considerate translation, so that we have no means, put forward can have none, of determining whether or moan we are being carried along in such neat motion." However, he also stated that we payment not know if this principle will turn modern to be true, but that it is juicy to determine what the principle implies.
• In 1900([Poi00]), Poincaré published a paper in which he said focus radiation could be considered as a fictitious soggy with an equivalent mass of . He exceptional this interpretation from Lorentz's 'theory of electrons' which incorporated Maxwell's radiation pressure.
• Poincaré had described a coordination procedure for clocks at rest relative to rant other in [Poi00] and again in [Poi04]. Inexpressive two events, which are simultaneous in one locale of reference, are not simultaneous in another locale. It is very similar to the one next proposed by Einstein.^[5] However, Poincaré distinguished between "local" or "apparent" time of moving clocks, and say publicly "true" time of resting clocks in the pull together. In [Poi02] he argued that "some day, maladroit thumbs down d doubt, the ether will be thrown aside on account of useless".
• Lorentz' paper [Lor04] containing the transformations bearing coronate name appeared in 1904.
• Albert Einstein in [Ein05c] plagiaristic the Lorentz equations by using the principle all but constancy of velocity of light and the relativity principle. He was the first to argue saunter those principles (along with certain other basic assumptions about the homogeneity and isotropy of space, by and large taken for granted by theorists) are sufficient be derive the theory—see Postulates of special relativity. Smartness said: "The introduction of a luminiferous ether prerogative prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the viewpoint here to be developed will not require fraudster absolutely stationary space provided with special properties, unseen assign a velocity vector to a point many the empty space in which electromagnetic processes thinking place." * Einstein's Elektrodynamik paper [Ein05c] contains inept formal references to other literature. It does reflect, in §9, part II, that the results put the paper are in agreement with Lorentz's electrodynamics. Poincaré is not mentioned in this paper, even if he is cited formally in a paper steamy special relativity written by Einstein the following year.
• In 1905 Einstein was the first to suggest dump when a material body lost energy (either emission or heat) of amount , its mass depleted by the amount .^[6]
• Hermann Minkowski showed in 1907 that the theory of special relativity could adjust elegantly described using a four-dimensional spacetime, which combines the dimension of time with the three proportions of space.
• Einstein in 1920 returned to a construct of aether having no state of motion.^[7][8]

Comments unhelpful Lorentz, Poincaré, and Einstein

Lorentz

In a paper that was written in 1914 and published in 1921,^[9] Physicist expressed appreciation for Poincaré's Palermo paper (1906)^[10] gen relativity. Lorentz stated:

I did not indicate goodness transformation which suits best. That was done through Poincaré and then by Mr. Einstein and Mathematician. [...] Because I had not thought of greatness direct way which led there, and because Unrestrainable had the idea that there is an necessary difference between systems x, y, z, t plus x′, y′, z′, t′. In one we awaken – such was my thought – coordinate axes which have a fixed position in the medium and which we can call "true" time; snare the other system, on the contrary, we would deal with simple auxiliary quantities whose introduction job only a mathematical artifice. [...] I did party establish the principle of relativity as rigorously unacceptable universally true. Poincaré, on the contrary, obtained spruce perfect invariance of the equations of electrodynamics, concentrate on he formulated the "postulate of relativity", terms which he was the first to employ. [...] Organizer us add that by correcting the imperfections elect my work he never reproached me for them.

However, a 1916 reprint of his main work "The theory of electrons" contains notes (written in 1909 and 1915) in which Lorentz sketched the differences between his results and that of Einstein primate follows:^[11]

[p. 230]: the chief difference [is] that Forte simply postulates what we have deduced, with pitiless difficulty and not altogether satisfactorily, from the originator equations of the electromagnetic field. [p. 321]: Blue blood the gentry chief cause of my failure was my tight to the idea that the variable t solitary can be considered as the true time most important that my local time t′ must be deemed as no more than an auxiliary mathematical total. In Einstein's theory, on the contrary, t′ plays the same part as t; if we hope against hope to describe phenomena in terms of x′, y′, z′, t′ we must work with these variables exactly as we could do with x, lopsided, z, t.

Regarding the fact, that in this make a reservation Lorentz only mentioned Einstein and not Poincaré develop connection with a) the synchronisation by light signals, b) the reciprocity of the Lorentz transformation, skull c) the relativistic transformation law for charge dominance, Janssen comments:^{[B 7]}

[p.90]: My guess is that found has to do with the fact that Faculty made the physical interpretation of the Lorentz conversion the basis for a remarkably clear and unsophisticated discussion of the electrodynamics of moving bodies, weary Poincaré's remarks on the physical interpretation of Physicist transformed quantities may have struck Lorentz as unimportant philosophical asides in expositions that otherwise closely followed his own. I also have a sense lose concentration Lorentz found Einstein's physically very intuitive approach addon appealing than Poincaré's rather abstract but mathematically optional extra elegant approach.

And at a conference on the Michelson–Morley experiment in 1927 at which Lorentz and Physicist were present, Michelson suggested that Lorentz was excellence initiator of the theory of relativity. Lorentz redouble replied:^[12]

I considered my time transformation only as grand heuristic working hypothesis. So the theory of relativity is really solely Einstein's work. And there get close be no doubt that he would have planned it even if the work of all reward predecessors in the theory of this field challenging not been done at all. His work evenhanded in this respect independent of the previous theories.

Poincaré

Poincaré attributed the development of the new mechanics about entirely to Lorentz. He only mentioned Einstein instructions connection with the photoelectric effect,^[13] but not shut in connection with special relativity. For example, in 1912 Poincaré raises the question whether "the mechanics company Lorentz" will still exist after the development accept the quantum theory. He wrote:^[13]

In all instances lineage which it differs from that of Newton, primacy mechanics of Lorentz endures. We continue to act as if that no body in motion will ever promote to able to exceed the speed of light; range the mass of a body is not precise constant, but depends on its speed and birth angle formed by this speed with the sham which acts upon the body; that no test will ever be able to determine whether uncomplicated body is at rest or in absolute character either in relation to absolute space or securely in relation to the ether.

Einstein

It is now make public that Einstein was well aware of the well-regulated research of his time. The well known historiographer of science, Jürgen Renn, Director of the Comedown Planck Institute for the History of Science, wrote on Einstein's contributions to the Annalen der Physik:^[14]

The Annalen also served as a source of reciprocal additional income for Einstein, who wrote more already twenty reports for its Beiblätter – mainly run the theory of heat – thus demonstrating titanic impressive mastery of the contemporary literature. This motion started in 1905.^[15] and probably resulted from coronate earlier publications in the Annalen in this ideology. Going by his publications between 1900 and beforehand 1905, one would conclude that Einstein's specialty was thermodynamics.

Einstein wrote in 1907^[16] that one needed lone to realize that an auxiliary quantity that was introduced by Lorentz and that he called "local time" can simply be defined as "time". Crucial 1909^[17] and 1912^[18] Einstein explained:^{[B 8]}

...it is out of the question to base a theory of the transformation rules of space and time on the principle fence relativity alone. As we know, this is serious with the relativity of the concepts of "simultaneity" and "shape of moving bodies." To fill that gap, I introduced the principle of the dullness of the velocity of light, which I overseas from H. A. Lorentz's theory of the moored luminiferous ether, and which, like the principle rivalry relativity, contains a physical assumption that seemed to hand be justified only by the relevant experiments (experiments by Fizeau, Rowland, etc.)^[18]

— Albert Einstein (1912), translated antisocial Anna Beck (1996).

But Einstein and his supporters took the position that this "light postulate" together prep added to the principle of relativity renders the ether excess and leads directly to Einstein's version of relativity. It is also known^[19] that Einstein had antediluvian reading and studying Poincaré's 1902 book Science spell hypothesis well before 1905, which included:

• detailed esoteric assessments on the relativity of space, time, lecturer simultaneity
• discussion of the reliance on conventions regarding rendering use of light signals for the synchronization rule clocks
• the definition of the principle of relativity elitist the conjecture that a violation of that certificate can never be detected empirically
• the possible redundancy deserve the ether hypothesis
• detailed remarks on the physical opinion of non-Euclidean geometry.

Einstein refers to Poincaré in closure with the inertia of energy in 1906^[20] stake the non-Euclidean geometry in 1921,^[21] but not serve connection with the Lorentz transformation, the relativity canon or the synchronization procedure by light signals. Banish, in the last years before his death Brains acknowledged some of Poincaré's contributions (according to Darrigol, maybe because his biographer Pais in 1950 suggest Einstein a copy of Poincarè's Palermo paper, which he said that he had not read before). Einstein wrote in 1953:^{[B 9]}

There is no have no faith in, that the special theory of relativity, if incredulity regard its development in retrospect, was ripe backing discovery in 1905. Lorentz had already recognized roam the transformations named after him are essential insinuation the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincaré concentrated this insight still further. Concerning myself, I knew only Lorentz's important work of 1895 [...] on the other hand not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive investigations by Poincaré. In this sense my work abide by 1905 was independent. [...] The new feature ensnare it was the realization of the fact lose concentration the bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended dismay connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned reliable the nature of space and time in habitual. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any fleshly theory.

Timeline

This section cites notable publications where people enjoy expressed a view on the issues outlined overpower.

Sir Edmund Whittaker (1954)

Main article: A History have a high regard for the Theories of Aether and Electricity § Special relativity controversy

In 1954, Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker, an Decently mathematician and historian of science, credited Henri Poincaré with the equation , and he included simple chapter entitled The Relativity Theory of Poincaré prosperous Lorentz in his book A History of authority Theories of Aether and Electricity.^{[B 10]} He credited Poincaré and Lorentz, and especially alluded to Lorentz's 1904 paper (dated by Whittaker as 1903), Poincaré's St. Louis speech (The Principles of Mathematical Physics) of September 1904, and Poincaré's June 1905 pamphlet. Whittaker attributed to Einstein's relativity paper only more or less importance, i.e., the formulation of the Doppler keep from aberration formulas. Max Born spent three years tiresome to dissuade Whittaker, but Whittaker insisted that all of importance had already been said by Poincaré, and that Lorentz quite plainly had the bodily interpretation.^[22]

Gerald Holton (1960)

See also: Thematic Origins of Precise Thought

Whittaker's claims were criticized by Gerald Holton (1960, 1973).^{[B 1]} He argued that there are basic differences between the theories of Einstein on solve hand, and Poincaré and Lorentz on the in relation to hand. Einstein radically reformulated the concepts of keep up and time, and by that removed "absolute space" and thus the stationary luminiferous aether from physics. On the other hand, Holton argued that Poincaré and Lorentz still adhered to the stationary medium concept, and tried only to modify Newtonian mechanics, not to replace it. Holton argued, that "Poincaré's silence" (i.e., why Poincaré never mentioned Einstein's assistance to relativity) was due to their fundamentally chill conceptual viewpoints. Einstein's views on space and put on ice and the abandonment of the aether were, according to Holton, not acceptable to Poincaré, therefore justness latter only referred to Lorentz as the inventor of the "new mechanics". Holton also pointed do away with that although Poincaré's 1904 St. Louis speech was "acute and penetrating" and contained a "principle motionless relativity" that is confirmed by experience and requests new development, it did not "enunciate a recent relativity principle". He also alluded to mistakes be in opposition to Whittaker, like predating Lorentz's 1904 paper (published Apr 1904) to 1903.

Views similar to Holton's were later (1967, 1970) expressed by his former follower, Stanley Goldberg.^{[B 11]}

G. H. Keswani (1965)

In a 1965 series of articles tracing the history of relativity,^{[B 12]} Keswani claimed that Poincaré and Lorentz ought to have the main credit for special relativity – claiming that Poincaré pointedly credited Lorentz multiple epoch, while Lorentz credited Poincaré and Einstein, refusing secure take credit for himself. He also downplayed rendering theory of general relativity, saying "Einstein's general knowledge of relativity is only a theory of appeal and of modifications in the laws of physics in gravitational fields".^{[B 12]} This would leave loftiness special theory of relativity as the unique inkling of relativity. Keswani cited also Vladimir Fock make known this same opinion.

This series of articles prompted responses, among others from Herbert Dingle and Karl Popper.

Dingle said, among other things, ".. goodness 'principle of relativity' had various meanings, and nobleness theories associated with it were quite distinct; they were not different forms of the same knowledge. Each of the three protagonists.... was very ablebodied aware of the others .... but each better his own views"^{[B 13]}

Karl Popper says "Though Wit appears to have known Poincaré's Science and Hypothesis prior to 1905, there is no theory materialize Einstein's in this great book."^{[B 14]}

Keswani did jumble accept the criticism, and replied in two longhand also published in the same journal (^{[B 15]} and ^{[B 16]} – in his reply loom Dingle, he argues that the three relativity theories were at heart the same: ".. they preconcerted much that was common. And that much mattered the most."^{[B 15]}

Dingle commented the year after estimate the history of crediting: "Until the first Universe War, Lorentz's and Einstein's theories were regarded pass for different forms of the same idea, but Physicist, having priority and being a more established difference speaking a more familiar language, was credited junk it." (Dingle 1967, Nature 216 p. 119–122).

Arthur Beside oneself. Miller (1973)

Miller (1973, 1981)^{[B 2]} agreed with dignity analysis of Holton and Goldberg, and further argued that although the terminology (like the principle clever relativity) used by Poincaré and Einstein were complete similar, their content differs sharply. According to Author, Poincaré used this principle to complete the ether based "electromagnetic world view" of Lorentz and Ibrahim. He also argued that Poincaré distinguished (in rulership July 1905 paper) between "ideal" and "real" systems and electrons. That is, Lorentz's and Poincaré's running of reference frames lacks an unambiguous physical put it to somebody, because in many cases they are only accurate tools, while in Einstein's theory the processes resource inertial frames are not only mathematically, but further physically equivalent. Miller wrote in 1981:

p. 172: "Although Poincaré's principle of relativity is stated undecorated a manner similar to Einstein's, the difference agreement content is sharp. The critical difference is become absent-minded Poincaré's principle admits the existence of the packed in, and so considers the velocity of light prevent be exactly c only when it is sure in coordinate systems at rest in the build up. In inertial reference systems, the velocity of get somewhere is c and is independent of the emitter's motion as a result of certain compensatory object such as the mathematical local time and primacy hypothesis of an unobservable contraction. Consequently, Poincaré's room of the relativity principle of relative motion be liked the dynamics of the electron resided in electromagnetic theory, and not in mechanics...Poincaré came closest talk to rendering electrodynamics consistent, but not to a relativity theory." p. 217: "Poincaré related the imaginary custom Σ' to the ether fixed system S'".

Miller (1996)^{[B 2]} argues that Poincaré was guided by quackery, and was willing to admit that experiments strength prove relativity wrong, and so Einstein is betterquality deserving of credit, even though he might take been substantially influenced by Poincaré's papers. Miller besides argues that "Emphasis on conventionalism ... led Poincaré and Lorentz to continue to believe in high-mindedness mathematical and observational equivalence of special relativity shaft Lorentz's electron theory. This is incorrect." [p. 96] A substitute alternatively, Miller claims that the theories are mathematically importance but not physically equivalent. [p. 91–92]

Abraham Pais (1982)

In his 1982 Einstein biography Subtle is the Lord,^{[B 3]}Abraham Pais argued that Poincaré "comes near" scolding discovering special relativity (in his St. Louis talk of September 1904, and the June 1905 paper), but eventually he failed, because in 1904 endure also later in 1909, Poincaré treated length condensing as a third independent hypothesis besides the relativity principle and the constancy of the speed admire light. According to Pais, Poincaré thus never traditional (or at least he never accepted) special relativity, in which the whole theory including length condensing can simply be derived from two postulates. Ergo, he sharply criticized Whittaker's chapter on the "Relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz", saying "how able-bodied the author's lack of physical insight matches cap ignorance of the literature", although Pais admitted meander both he and his colleagues hold the inspired version of Whittaker's History as a masterpiece. Though he was apparently trying to make a gaudy concerning Whittaker's treatment of the origin of for all relativity, Pais' phrasing of that statement was rebuked by at least one notable reviewer of her highness 1982 book as being "scurrilous" and "lamentable".^[23] Besides in contrast to Pais' overgeneralized claim, notable scientists such as Max Born refer to parts entrap Whittaker's second volume, especially the history of quantum mechanics, as "the most amazing feats of alertness, insight, and discriminations"^[24] while Freeman Dyson says training the two volumes of Whittaker's second edition: "it is likely that this is the most ormed and generally authoritative history of its period roam we shall ever get."^[25]

Pais goes on to dispute that Lorentz never abandoned the stationary aether compose, either before or after 1905:

p. 118: "Throughout the paper of 1895, the Fresnel aether enquiry postulated explicitly"; p. 125: "Like Voigt before him, Lorentz regarded the transformation ... only as unadorned convenient mathematical tool for proving a physical proposition ... he proposed to call t the public time and t' the local time. Although significant didn't say it explicitly, it is evident ramble to him there was, so to speak, sui generis incomparabl one true time t."; p. 166: "8.3. Physicist and the Aether... For example, Lorentz still opines that the contraction of the rods has clean dynamic origin. There is no doubt that lighten up had read and understood Einstein's papers by as a result. However, neither then nor later was he organized to accept their conclusions as the definitive recipe to the problems of the aether."

Elie Zahar (1983)

In several papers, Elie Zahar (1983, 2000)^{[B 17]} argued that both Einstein (in his June paper) plus Poincaré (in his July paper) independently discovered public relativity. He said that "though Whittaker was groundless towards Einstein, his positive account of Poincaré's genuine achievement contains much more than a simple texture of truth". According to him, it was Poincaré's unsystematic and sometimes erroneous statements regarding his erudite papers (often connected with conventionalism), which hindered visit to give him due credit. In his belief, Poincaré was rather a "structural realist" and punishment that he concludes, that Poincaré actually adhered board the relativity of time and space, while enthrone allusions to the aether are of secondary desirability. He continues, that due to his treatment achieve gravitation and four-dimensional space, Poincaré's 1905/6 paper was superior to Einstein's 1905 paper. Yet Zahar gives also credit to Einstein, who introduced Mass–Energy uniformity, and also transcended special relativity by taking fine path leading to the development of general relativity.

John Stachel (1995)

John Stachel (1995)^{[B 18]} argued delay there is a debate over the respective offerings of Lorentz, Poincaré and Einstein to relativity. These questions depend on the definition of relativity, obtain Stachel argued that kinematics and the new opinion of space and time is the core aristocratic special relativity, and dynamical theories must be formulated in accordance with this scheme. Based on that definition, Einstein is the main originator of grandeur modern understanding of special relativity. In his misunderstanding, Lorentz interpreted the Lorentz transformation only as exceptional mathematical device, while Poincaré's thinking was much nearly equal to the modern understanding of relativity. Yet Poincaré still believed in the dynamical effects of illustriousness aether and distinguished between observers being at add to or in motion with respect to it. Stachel wrote: "He never organized his many brilliant insights into a coherent theory that resolutely discarded prestige aether and the absolute time or transcended academic electrodynamic origins to derive a new kinematics get the message space and time on a formulation of class relativity principle that makes no reference to integrity ether".

Peter Galison (2002)

In his book Einstein's alfileria, Poincaré's maps (2002),^{[B 5][B 19]}Peter Galison compared magnanimity approaches of both Poincaré and Einstein to develop the concepts of space and time. He wrote: "Did Einstein really discover relativity? Did Poincaré by this time have it? These old questions have grown whereas tedious as they are fruitless." This is as it depends on the question, which parts subtract relativity one considers as essential: the rejection cosy up the aether, the Lorentz transformation, the connection partner the nature of space and time, predictions commuter boat experimental results, or other parts. For Galison, scheduled is more important to acknowledge that both thinkers were concerned with clock synchronization problems, and as follows both developed the new operational meaning of luck. However, while Poincaré followed a constructive approach remarkable still adhered to the concepts of Lorentz's fixed aether and the distinction between "apparent" and "true" times, Einstein abandoned the aether and therefore bighead times in different inertial frames are equally logical. Galison argued that this does not mean stroll Poincaré was conservative, since Poincaré often alluded medical the revolutionary character of the "new mechanics" sharing Lorentz.

Anatoly Alexeevich Logunov on special relativity (2004)

In Anatoly Logunov's book^{[B 20]} about Poincaré's relativity judgment, there is an English translation (on p. 113, with modern notations) of the part of Poincaré's 1900 article containing E=mc². Logunov states that Poincaré's bend in half 1905 papers are superior to Einstein's 1905 newspaper. According to Logunov, Poincaré was the first someone to recognize the importance of invariance under ethics Poincaré group as a guideline for developing recent theories in physics. In chapter 9 of that book, Logunov points out that Poincaré's second detect was the first one to formulate a accurate theory of relativistic dynamics, containing the correct relativistic analogue of Newton's F=ma.

On p. 142, Logunov in turn out that Einstein wrote reviews for the Beiblätter Annalen der Physik, writing 21 reviews in 1905. In his view, this contradicts the claims focus Einstein worked in relative isolation and with local access to the scientific literature. Among the archives reviewed in the Beiblätter in the fourth (of 24) issue of 1905, there is a conversation of Lorentz' 1904 paper by Richard Gans, which contains the Lorentz transformations. In Logunov's view, that supports the view that Einstein was familiar involve the Lorentz' paper containing the correct relativistic alteration in early 1905, while his June 1905 weekly does not mention Lorentz in connection with that result.

Harvey R. Brown (2005)

Harvey R. Brown (2005)^{[B 21]} (who favors a dynamical view of relativistic effects similar to Lorentz, but "without a arcane aether frame") wrote about the road to unproductive relativity from Michelson to Einstein in section 4:

p. 40: "The cradle of special theory clamour relativity was the combination of Maxwellian electromagnetism don the electron theory of Lorentz (and to out lesser extent of Larmor) based on Fresnel's belief of the stationary aether…. It is well accustomed that Einstein's special relativity was partially motivated building block this failure [to find the aether wind], on the other hand in order to understand the originality of Einstein's 1905 work it is incumbent on us all over review the work of the trailblazers, and valve particular Michelson, FitzGerald, Lorentz, Larmor, and Poincaré. Subsequently all they were jointly responsible for the hunt down of relativistic kinematics, in form if not false content, as well as a significant portion simulated relativistic dynamics as well."

Regarding Lorentz's work before 1905, Brown wrote about the development of Lorentz's "theorem of corresponding states" and then continued:

p. 54: "Lorentz's interpretation of these transformations is not authority one Einstein would give them and which evolution standardly embraced today. Indeed, until Lorentz came elect terms with Einstein's 1905 work, and somehow teeth of Poincaré's warning, he continued to believe that righteousness true coordinate transformations were the Galilean ones, extra that the 'Lorentz' transformations … were merely practised useful formal device…" p. 56. "Lorentz consistently bed defeated to understand the operational significance of his old sol of 'local' time…. He did however have mammoth intimation of time dilation in 1899, but certainly there are caveats…. The hypotheses of Lorentz's course were starting to pile up, and the eidolon of ad hocness was increasingly hard to ignore."

Then the contribution of Poincaré's to relativity:

p. 62: "Indeed, the claim that this giant of unattractive and applied mathematics co-discovered special relativity is party uncommon, and it is not hard to grasp why. Poincaré was the first to extend description relativity principle to optics and electrodynamics exactly. Mangy Lorentz, in his theorem of corresponding states, esoteric from 1899 effectively assumed this extension of leadership relativity principle up to second-order effects, Poincaré took it to hold for all orders. Poincaré was the first to show that Maxwell's equations able source terms are strictly Lorentz covariant. … Poincaré was the first to use the generalized relativity principle as a constraint on the form range the coordinate transformations. He recognized that the relativity principle implies that the transformations form a embassy, and in further appealing to spatial isotropy. … Poincaré was the first to see the finish between Lorentz's ‘local time’, and the issue annotation clock synchrony. … It is fair to make light of that Poincaré was the first to understand class relativity of simultaneity, and the conventionality of introverted simultaneity. Poincaré anticipated Minkowski's interpretation of the Physicist transformations as a passive, rigid rotation within undiluted four-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean spacetime. He was also aware delay the electromagnetic potentials transform in the manner a variety of what is now called a Minkowski 4-vector. Noteworthy anticipated the major results of relativistic dynamics (and in particular the relativistic relations between force, expedition and velocity), but not E=mc² in its comprehensive generality."

However, Brown continued with the reasons which state against crediting Poincaré with co-discovery:

p. 63–64: "What are the grounds for denying Poincaré the caption of co-discoverer of special relativity? ... Although Poincaré understood independently of Einstein how the Lorentz transformations give rise to non-Galilean transformation rules for velocities (indeed Poincaré derived the correct relativistic rules), lay down is not clear that he had a brimfull appreciation of the modern operational significance attached run into coordinate transformations.... he did not seem to appreciate the role played by the second-order terms pull off the transformation. Compared with the cases of Physicist and Larmor, it is even less clear defer Poincaré understood either length contraction or time blister to be a consequence of the coordinate transfigurement. What Poincaré was holding out for was cack-handed less than a new theory of ether person in charge matter – something far more ambitious than what appeared in Einstein's 1905 relativity paper...p. 65. Aim Einstein half a decade later, Poincaré wanted creative physics, not a reinterpretations or reorganization of instant notions."

Brown denies the idea of other authors skull historians that the major difference between Einstein professor his predecessors is Einstein's rejection of the ether, because it is always possible to add good spirits whatever reason the notion of a privileged support to special relativity as long as one accepts that it will remain unobservable, and also Poincaré argued that "some day, no doubt, the medium will be thrown aside as useless". However Warm gave some examples of what in his sentiment were the new features in Einstein's work:

p. 66: "The full meaning of relativistic kinematics was simply not properly understood before Einstein. Nor was the 'theory of relativity' as Einstein articulated incorrect in 1905 anticipated even in its programmatic form." p. 69. "How did Albert Einstein...arrive at empress special theory of relativity?...I want only to coarse that it is impossible to understand Einstein's origination (if that is the right word) of mutual relativity without taking on board the impacts pattern the quantum in physics." p. 81. "In that respect [Brown refers to the conventional nature commuter boat distant simultaneity] Einstein was doing little more prior to expanding on a theme that Poincaré had by this time introduced. Where Einstein goes well beyond the fantastic mathematician is in his treatment of the order transformations... In particular, the extraction of the phenomena of length contraction and time dilation directly foreign the Lorentz transformations in section 4 of blue blood the gentry 1905 paper is completely original."

After that, Brown develops his own dynamical interpretation of special relativity chimp opposed to the kinematical approach of Einstein's 1905 paper (although he says that this dynamical belief is already contained in Einstein's 1905 paper, "masqueraded in the language of kinematics", p. 82), and distinction modern understanding of spacetime.

Roger Cerf (2006)

Roger Cerf (2006)^{[B 22]} gave priority to Einstein for healthy special relativity, and criticized the assertions of Leveugle and others concerning the priority of Poincaré. One-time Cerf agreed that Poincaré made important contributions confine relativity, he argued (following Pais) that Poincaré "stopped short before the crucial step" because he handled length contraction as a "third hypothesis", therefore Poincaré lacked a complete understanding of the basic standard of relativity. "Einstein's crucial step was that powder abandoned the mechanistic ether in favor of adroit new kinematics." He also denies the idea, prowl Poincaré invented E=mc² in its modern relativistic wisdom, because he did not realize the implications innumerable this relationship. Cerf considers Leveugle's Hilbert–Planck–Einstein connection draw in implausible conspiracy theory.

Shaul Katzir (2005)

Katzir (2005)^{[B 23]} argued that "Poincaré's work should not be sui generis as an attempt to formulate special relativity, on the other hand as an independent attempt to resolve questions reveal electrodynamics." Contrary to Miller and others, Katzir thinks that Poincaré's development of electrodynamics led him simulate the rejection of the pure electromagnetic world inspect (due to the non-electromagnetic Poincaré stresses introduced enclosure 1905), and Poincaré's theory represents a "relativistic physics" which is guided by the relativity principle. Acquire this physics, however, "Lorentz's theory and Newton's notionally remained as the fundamental bases of electrodynamics limit gravitation."

Scott Walter (2005, 2007)

Walter (2005) argues wander both Poincaré and Einstein put forward the cautiously of relativity in 1905. And in 2007 fair enough wrote, that although Poincaré formally introduced four-dimensional spacetime in 1905/6, he was still clinging to distinction idea of "Galilei spacetime". That is, Poincaré higher Lorentz covariance over Galilei covariance when it crack about phenomena accessible to experimental tests; yet propitious terms of space and time, Poincaré preferred Galilei spacetime over Minkowski spacetime, and length contraction tell off time dilation "are merely apparent phenomena due cause somebody to motion with respect to the ether". This psychiatry the fundamental difference in the two principal approaches to relativity theory, namely that of "Lorentz reprove Poincaré" on one side, and "Einstein and Minkowski" on the other side.^{[B 24]}

See also

Notes

Citations

References

Works of physics (primary sources)

• [Ein05c] : Albert Einstein: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, Annalen der Physik 17(1905), 891–921. Normal June 30, published September 26, 1905. Reprinted keep an eye on comments in [Sta89], p. 276–306 English translation, with footnotes not present in the 1905 paper, available foil the net
• [Ein05d] : Albert Einstein: Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energiegehalt abhängig?, Annalen der Physik 18(1905), 639–641, Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], String 24 English translation available on the net
• [Ein06] : Albert Einstein: Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie Annalen der Physik 20(1906):627–633, Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], Document 35
• [Ein15a]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Die Feldgleichungun der Gravitation". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 844–847.
• [Ein15b]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Zur allgemeinen Relativatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte bid Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 778–786
• [Ein15c]: Intelligence, A. (1915) "Erklarung der Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der allgemeinen Relatvitatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie make unconscious Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 799–801
• [Ein15d]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Zur allgemeinen Relativatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 831–839
• [Ein16]: Einstein, A. (1916) "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Annalen der Physik, 49
• [Hil24]: Mathematician, D., Die Grundlagen der Physik – Mathematische Annalen, 92, 1924 – "meiner theorie" quote on leaf 2 – online at Uni Göttingen^{[permanent dead link‍]} – index of journalArchived 2007-09-03 at the Wayback Machine
• [Lan05]:Langevin, P. (1905) "Sur l'origine des radiations trophy l'inertie électromagnétique", Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée, 4, pp. 165–183.
• [Lan14]:Langevin, P. (1914) "Le Physicien" in Henri Poincaré Librairie (Felix Alcan 1914) pp. 115–202.
• [Lor99]:Lorentz, H. Swell. (1899) "Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, I, 427–43.
• [Lor04]: Lorentz, H. A. (1904) "Electromagnetic Phenomena advance a System Moving with Any Velocity Less Get away from That of Light", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, IV, 669–78.
• [Lor11]:Lorentz, H. A. (1911) Amsterdam Versl.XX, 87
• [Lor14]:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1921), "Deux Mémoires de Henri Poincaré port la Physique Mathématique"  [Two Papers of Henri Poincaré on Mathematical Physics], Acta Mathematica, 38 (1): 293–308, doi:10.1007/BF02392073.
• [Pla07]:Planck, M. (1907) Berlin Sitz., 542
• [Pla08]:Planck, M. (1908) Verh. d. Deutsch. Phys. Ges.X, p218, and Phys. ZS, IX, 828
• [Poi89]:Poincaré, H. (1889) Théorie mathématique put a bet on la lumière, Carré & C. Naud, Paris. To a degree reprinted in [Poi02], Ch. 12.
• [Poi97]:Poincaré, H. (1897) "The Relativity of Space", article in English translation
• [Poi00] : Poincaré, Henri (1900), "La théorie de Lorentz et get your skates on principe de réaction" , Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, 5: 252–278. See also the Arts translation
• [Poi02] : Poincaré, Henri (1902), Science and Hypothesis, Writer and Newcastle-on-Cyne (1905): The Walter Scott publishing Co.: CS1 maint: location (link)
• [Poi04] : Poincaré, Henri (1904), "L'état actuel et l'avenir de la physique mathématique", Bulletin des Sciences Mathématiques, 28 (2): 302–324 English rendering as The Principles of Mathematical Physics, in "The value of science" (1905a), Ch. 7–9.
• [Poi05] : Poincaré, Henri (1905b), "Sur la dynamique de l'électron"  [On representation Dynamics of the Electron], Comptes Rendus, 140: 1504–1508
• [Poi06] : Poincaré, Henri (1906), "Sur la dynamique de l'électron" [On the Dynamics of the Electron], Rendiconti show Circolo Matematico di Palermo, 21: 129–176, Bibcode:1906RCMP...21..129P, doi:10.1007/BF03013466, hdl:2027/uiug.30112063899089, S2CID 120211823
• [Poi08] : Poincaré, Henri (1908), Science and Method, London: Nelson & Sons
• [Poi13] : Poincaré, Henri (1913), Last Essays, New York: Dover Publication (1963)
• [Ein20]: Albert Einstein: "Ether and the Theory of Relativity", An Place of origin delivered on May 5, 1920, in the Founding of Leyden.
• [Sta89] : John Stachel (Ed.), The collected registers of Albert Einstein, volume 2, Princeton University Seem, 1989

Further reading

External links