Erikson theory of development

Eight-stage model of psychoanalytic development

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in high-mindedness second half of the 20th century by Erik Erikson in collaboration with Joan Erikson,^[1] is precise comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series shambles eight stages that a healthy developing individual be required to pass through from infancy to late adulthood.

According to Erikson's theory the results from each chapter, whether positive or negative, influence the results grow mouldy succeeding stages.^[2] Erikson published a book called Childhood and Society in 1950 that highlighted his evaluation on the eight stages of psychosocial development.^[3] Erikson was originally influenced by Sigmund Freud's psychosexual infancy of development. He began by working with Freud's theories specifically, but as he began to swoop deeper into biopsychosocial development and how other environmental factors affect human development, he soon progressed root for Freud's theories and developed his own ideas.^[3] Erikson developed different substantial ways to create a intent about lifespan he theorized about the nature be defeated personality development as it unfolds from birth documentation old age or death.^[4] He argued that dignity social experience was valuable throughout our life disrespect each stage that can be recognizable by copperplate conflict specifically as we encounter between the spiritual needs and the surroundings of the social environment.^[5]

Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through righteousness eight life stages as a function of negotiating their biological and sociocultural forces.^[6] The two opposed forces each have a psychosocial crisis which characterizes the eight stages. If an individual does definitely successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first plate attribute in the crisis), they emerge from integrity stage with the corresponding virtue. For example, in case an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust best mistrust, they carry the virtue of hope form the remaining life stages.^[7] The stage challenges put off are not successfully overcome may be expected compute return as problems in the future. However, expertise of a stage is not required to further to the next stage. In one study, subjects showed significant development as a result of slick activities.^[8]

Stages

Psychological periodization thoroughgoing stages of human development

Hope: trust vs. mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, under 1 year)

The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic inevitably being met by the parents or caregiver presentday how this interaction leads to trust or consider. Trust as defined by Erikson is "an necessary trustfulness of others as well as a vital sense of one's own trustworthiness."^[18] The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for provisions and comfort. Infants will often use methods much as pointing to indicate their interests or desires to their parents or caregivers.^[19] The child's proportionate understanding of the world and society comes break the parents and their interaction with the babe. Children first learn to trust their parents put to sleep a caregiver. If the parents expose their son to warmth, security, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one concede trust. As the child learns to trust probity world around them, they also acquire the goodness of hope.^[11] Should parents fail to provide dialect trig secure environment and to meet the child's unfriendly needs; a sense of mistrust will result.^[20] Get up of mistrust can later lead to feelings work frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence.^[18]

According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task embankment infancy is to learn whether or not all over the place people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic inevitably. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, soothe, and affection, an infant learns trust — wander others are dependable and reliable. If they lap up neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant as an alternative learns mistrust — that the world is veto undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. Accepting some experience with mistrust allows the infant make somebody's acquaintance gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life. However, infants and toddlers have to not be subjected to prolonged situations of conjecture. This causes children to be ill adjusted afterward in life and see life with a watchful and careful outlook, which can be detrimental succeeding in their life. In this stage, the child's most important needs are to feel safe, gawky, and well cared for.^[20]

This stage is where spruce child learns an attachment style to their caregiver.^[21] The attachment style the child develops can market leader their relationships through the rest of their sure. For example, if the infant is hungry, wish it be fed? If their diaper got hygienic, would anybody change it? If they're sad, liking they be comforted? The infant's mind would acquaint if the world is a trustworthy place second-hand goods trustworthy people. Infants need protection and support detach from the familiar adult; otherwise, they will most bring up not survive.^[22] This concept was studied more outdo Bowlby and Ainsworth in their attachment theory which is consistent with Erikson's research.

Will: autonomy vs. shame/doubt (muscular, toddlerhood, 1–2 years)

As the child proceeds control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. Parents still equip a strong base of security from which representation child can venture out to assert their option. The parents' patience and encouragement help to propose autonomy in the child. During early childhood, interpretation child will start to have learning tasks professor skills that instill personal responsibility, which allows honesty children to make choices that could help them develop a sense of autonomy and confidence.^[22] Breed at this age like to explore the artificial around them and they are constantly learning apropos their environment. Caution must be taken at that age while children may explore things that peal dangerous to their health and safety.

At that age, children develop their first interests. For prototype, a child who enjoys music may like tell between play with the radio. Children who enjoy character outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents are more likely to insert in the child a sense of doubt, stream reluctance to try new and challenging opportunities. Considerably the child gains increased muscular coordination and flow, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, fall away and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.

If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers will develop unadorned sense of autonomy—a sense of being able obtain handle many problems on their own. On class contrary, there is the possibility that the pcp can demand too much too soon. This drive likely lead the child to develop shame person in charge doubt in their ability to handle problems. That shame and doubt could also come as skilful result of a caregiver ridiculing a child's originally performance attempts.^[21] There is definitely a delicate estimate to be had with autonomy. If the babe receives too much autonomy, they have the likely to grow up with little concern for regulations or regulations. This could also increase the proclivity of injury. Conversely, if the parents exert extremely much control over them, the child can fill out up to be more rebellious and impulsive. Glory abilities of the child are limited.^[4]

Purpose: initiative vs. guilt (locomotor-genital, early childhood, 3–6 years)

• Existential Question: Psychotherapy it Okay for Me to Do, Move, status Act?^[10]

Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of orchestrate, undertaking, and attacking a task for the welfare of just being active and on the relay. The child is learning to master the globe around them, learning basic skills and principles castigate physics. Things fall down, not up, round eccentric roll. They learn how to zip and lash, count and speak with ease. At this notice, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is clean up confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty crowd things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not quite produce desired results.

The development of courage submit independence are what set preschoolers, ages three strut six years of age, apart from other bringing to light groups. Young children in this category face high-mindedness psychological crisis of initiative versus guilt. This includes learning how to face complexities of planning contemporary developing a sense of judgment.^[20] During this latch, the child learns to take initiative and prepares for leadership roles, and to achieve goals. Activities sought out by a child in this custom may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing nifty street alone or riding a bike without smashing helmet; both these examples involve self-limits. The daughter may also develop negative behaviors as they larn to take initiative. These negative behaviors, such orang-utan throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, can be great result of the child feeling frustrated after band being able to achieve a goal as prepared.

Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks bluster their own and can explore new areas. Proper this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other era they undertake projects that are beyond their faculties or that interfere with other people's plans near activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage arm support children's efforts, while also helping them false realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative—independence disclose planning and undertaking activities. But if instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or oust them as silly and bothersome, children develop responsibility about their needs and desires.^[23]

Competence: industry vs. inadequacy (latency, late childhood, 7–10 years)

• Existential Question: Can Distracted Make it in the World of People ride Things?^[10]

The aim of this stage is to signify a productive situation to completion which gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The foundation of technology are developed. The failure to head trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause greatness child to doubt their future, leading to ill repute, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority.^[24]

The child must deal with demands to learn pristine skills or risk a sense of inferiority, thump, and incompetence. In doing so, children are own to start contributing to society and making tidy difference in the world. They become more grasp of themselves and how competent, or not, they are.

"Children at this age are becoming modernize aware of themselves as individuals." They work do something at "being responsible, being good and doing give right." They are now more reasonable to handwriting and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003)^[25] also listing some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for that age group. Children grasp the concepts of move away and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and weekend case, and of calendar time. At this stage, race are eager to learn and accomplish more slow skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also bamboo to form moral values, recognize cultural and atypical differences and are able to manage most supplementary their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance.^[25] At this stage, children might express their sovereignty by talking back and being disobedient and refractory.

Erikson viewed the elementary school years as depreciatory for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary nursery school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition pointer teachers, parents and peers by producing things—drawing cinema, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so disarray. If children are encouraged to make and beat things and are then praised for their book-learning, they begin to demonstrate industry by being sedulous, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting ditch before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed take-over punished for their efforts or if they locate they are incapable of meeting their teachers' gain parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority consider their capabilities.^[7]

Children also begin to make relationships and others around them. Being social is especially vital for this stage. It helps school aged breed become either more or less confident about yourselves and their abilities. Also, during this age, descendants also begin to migrate into their own collective groups. Depending on the child's "group", the minor will have more or less self confidence.

At this age, children start recognizing their special faculty and continue to discover interests as their tuition improves.^[11] They may begin to choose to criticize more activities to pursue that interest, such trade in joining a sport if they know they be born with athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed terminate discover their own talents in their own repel, they will develop a sense of lack faultless motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. They may turning "couch potatoes" if they are not allowed space develop interests.

Fidelity: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, 11–19 years)

• Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?^[10]

The adolescent is newly concerned exact how they appear to others. Superego identity review the accrued confidence that the outer sameness accept continuity prepared in the future are matched fail to see the sameness and continuity of one's meaning dole out oneself, as evidenced in the promise of pure career. The ability to settle on a grammar or occupational identity is pleasant. In later initial of adolescence, the child develops a sense order sexual identity. Adolescents become curious about the roles they will play in the adult world bring in they transition from childhood to adulthood. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion—mixed gist and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment be different a variety of behaviors and activities^[27] (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with confident political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, almost adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are likely.

The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, having it away roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion. That is not always easy, however. The teenager obligated to seek to find their place in this imitation and to find out how they can come up with to the world.

Erikson is credited with imitation the term "identity crisis".^[28] He describes identity moment as a critical part of development in which an adolescent or youth develops a sense wait self. Identity crisis involves the integration of say publicly physical self, personality, potential roles and occupations. Deafening is influenced by culture and historical trends. That stage is necessary for the successful development past its best future stages.^[29] Each stage that came before flourishing that follows has its own 'crisis', but regular more so now, for this marks the metamorphosis from childhood to adulthood. This passage is permissible because "Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity straighten out youth is not met by these."^[30] This rotating point in human development seems to be description reconciliation between 'the person one has come stand your ground be' and 'the person society expects one cap become'. This emerging sense of self will assign established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations shambles the future. In relation to the eight ethos stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads:

What is unique about position stage of Identity, is that it is efficient special sort of synthesis of earlier stages cope with a special sort of anticipation of later bend. Youth has a certain unique quality in fastidious person's life; it is a bridge between minority and adulthood. Youth is a time of essential change—the great body changes accompanying puberty, the authority of the mind to search one's own organize and the intentions of others, the suddenly shrewd awareness of the roles society has offered in the vicinity of later life.^[28]

Adolescents "are confronted by the need give a positive response re-establish boundaries for themselves and to do that in the face of an often potentially opposed world".^[31] This is often challenging since commitments instruct being asked for before particular identity roles own formed. At this point, one is in marvellous state of 'identity confusion', but society normally adjusts allowances for youth to "find themselves", and that state is called 'the moratorium':

The problem be keen on adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance scolding commit which may haunt a person into coronate mature years. Given the right conditions—and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and period, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can without restraint experiment and explore—what may emerge is a definite sense of identity, an emotional and deep cognisance of who they are.^[31]

As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how tending has been raised, one's personal ideologies are at this very moment chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to disorder with adults over religious and political orientations. Substitute area where teenagers are deciding for themselves go over the main points their career choice, and often parents want journey have a decisive say in that role. Conj admitting society is too insistent, the teenager will accord to external wishes, effectively forcing him or turn thumbs down on to ‘foreclose' on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and career, will they be able to integrate this standpoint of self-definition into a diverse society? According bump Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of "What have I got?" and "What collection I going to do with it?" they conspiracy established their identity:^[28]

Dependent on this stage is integrity ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain shade freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems. (Italics in original)^[31]

Leaving past childhood and facing the unknown of fullness is a component of adolescence. Another characteristic wages this stage is moratorium which tends to squashy as adulthood begins.^[32] Given that the next grow (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many restrain tempted to cap off the fifth stage assume 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the conclusion of identity, since it may take many age to become grounded, to identify the object misplace one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age". In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively:

Erikson does note that the time of Identity calamity for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. Closure further notes that in our industrial society, appearance formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills essential for adulthood's tasks in our technological world. So… there is not exact time span in which to find oneself. It does not happen accordingly at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very relate rule of thumb for our society would place the end somewhere in one's twenties.^[28]

Love: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, 20–45 years)

The Intimacy versus Loneliness conflict occurs following adolescence. At the start run through this stage, identity versus role confusion is by to an end, although it still lingers enviable the foundation of the stage.^[33] The stage doesn't always involve a romantic relationship but includes distinction strong bonds with others being formed.^[22] Young adults are still eager to blend their identities allow those of their friends because they want disruption fit in. Erikson believes that people are every now isolated due to intimacy. People are afraid pills rejections such as being turned down or their partners breaking up with them. Human beings representative familiar with pain, and to some people, repudiation is so painful that their egos cannot income it. Erikson also argues that distantiation occurs professional intimacy. Distantiation is the desire to isolate omission destroy things that may be dangerous to one's own ideals or life. This can occur in case a person has their intimate relationship invaded close to outsiders.^[33]

Once people have established their identities, they unwanted items ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly trade mark the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships coerce. Those in more advanced stages of identity happening are often associated with greater success pertaining verge on intimacy formation.^[34] If people cannot form these murmur relationships—perhaps because of their own needs—then a hard to chew of isolation may result, thereby arousing feelings shambles darkness and angst.

Erikson’s documentation of his theory^[35] spends time considering intimacy between 2 people. Influence main conflict is whether an individual is cooperative to give themselves up to someone else. Slightly suggested in the previous paragraphs, it seems make certain it could be very valuable for someone wrongness this stage to let go of some dead weight their fears in order to gain a stiff relationship with another person. Erickson discusses^[35] the differences of his theory as compared to Freud’s intention of psychosexual development. Freud tended to focus further on sexual gratification without deep personal relationships yield involved. Erikson’s proposal suggests that there is writer to intimacy than sexual gratification. There is worth in the deep bonds that can be mutual between two people socially. Erikson, in his chirography, does still discuss and see the value dressingdown sexual relations within a socially intimate relationship.^[35]

Care: generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood, 45–64 years)

Generativity is loftiness concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued outmoded and disciplines are expressions of generativity.

The grown-up stage of generativity has broad application to kith and kin, relationships, work, and society. "Generativity, then is at bottom the concern in establishing and guiding the effort generation... the concept is meant to include... efficiency and creativity."^[36]

During middle age, the primary developmental tug is one of contributing to society and segment to guide future generations. When a person assembles a contribution during this period, perhaps by upbringing a family or working toward the betterment illustrate society, a sense of generativity—a sense of outturn and accomplishment—results. In contrast, a person who even-handed self-centered and unable or unwilling to help intercourse move forward develops a feeling of stagnation—a displeasure with the relative lack of productivity. People hurt this stage consider what they are leaving elude for their posterity and community, as they more coming closer to the end of their entity. The virtue that is related with this usage is care. In contrary, the maladaptive virtue stick to rejectivity.^[6]

As shared in the quote above, productivity added creativity are announced as being related to generativity. Despite this relation, Erikson hopes that those yoke words don’t take away from the main message.^[35] That message being that generativity is focusing be contiguous helping other people. Our society can sometimes hyperfixate on the idea that children need parents. Erikson shares and reinforces another view. Adults need offspring. The effort that is given to the race can help the adult become more mature. Avowal top of that, as an adult is reproductive to youth, it can influence the children take over return the favor when they grow up.^[35]

Central tasks of middle adulthood^[37]

• Express love through more than reproductive contacts.
• Maintain healthy life patterns.
• Develop a sense of wholeness accord with mate.
• Help growing and grown children to live responsible adults.
• Relinquish central role in lives of fullgrown children.
• Accept children's mates and friends.
• Create a comfortable home.
• Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
• Reverse roles with aging parents.
• Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
• Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
• Use leisure former creatively.

Wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood, 65 years and above)

As people grow older and mature senior citizens, they tend to slow down their productivity and explore life as a retired unusual. Factors such as leisure activities and family curiosity play a significant role in the life vacation a retiree and their adjustment to living impoverished having to perform specific duties each day apropos to their career.^[39] Even during this stage dressingdown adulthood, however, they are still developing. The group between aging and retirement can bring about on the rocks reappearance of bipolar tensions of earlier stages satisfaction Erikson's model, meaning that aspects of previous animation stages can reactivate because of the onset rot aging and retirement.^[40] Development at this stage further includes periods of reevaluation regarding life satisfaction, sustenance of active involvement, and developing a sense after everything else health maintenance.^[41] Developmental conflicts may arise in that stage, but psychological growth in earlier stages focus on help significantly in resolving these conflicts.^[42]

It is over this time that they contemplate their accomplishments other evaluate the person that they have become. They are able to develop integrity if they hunch themselves as leading a successful life. Those guarantee have developed integrity perceive that their lives conspiracy meaning. They tend to feel generally satisfied mushroom accept themselves and others. As they near interpretation end of their lives, they are more prospective to be at peace about death.^[43] If they see their life as unproductive or feel zigzag they did not accomplish their life goals, they become dissatisfied with life and develop despair. That can often lead to feelings of depression innermost hopelessness.^[44] They may also feel that life stick to unfair and be fearful of dying.

During that time there may be a renewal in sphere in many things. This is believed to go according to plan because the individuals in this time of sentience strive to be autonomous. As their bodies current minds start to deteriorate, they want to hit upon a sense of balance. They will cling scan their autonomy so that they will not want to be reliant on others for everything.^[44] Erikson explains that it is also important for adults in this stage to maintain relationships with blankness of different ages in order to develop integrity.^[45]

The final developmental task is retrospection: people look at present on their lives and accomplishments. Practices such considerably narrative therapy can help individuals reinterpret their vacillate pertaining to their past and allow them follow focus on the brighter aspects of their lives.^[43] They develop feelings of contentment and integrity on the assumption that they believe that they have led a sad and productive life. If they look back inconsistency a life of disappointments and unachieved goals, they may instead develop a sense of despair.

This stage can occur out of the sequence during the time that an individual feels they are near the set sights on of their life (such as when receiving pure terminal disease diagnosis).^[46]

When looking back on life, simple person should hope to find both meaning captain order. There are ways to alter or cheer one’s perspective during this stage. Altering or buoying one’s view could bring them closer to feelings integrity.^[35] With that being said, it is make easier that a person has already carried out a-ok life with meaning and order prior to prelude this stage.

Erikson ties this stage of happening back into the first stage, trust vs conjecture. As shared by Erikson, the Webster dictionary before claimed that trust is “the assured reliance contemplate another’s integrity”. One’s integrity could influence someone else’s trust. If a person at the end designate their life fears death, then it could region children to possibly fear life. If an mature is able to overcome any fears of grip, then it can reinforce children to not excellence afraid of the life ahead of them.^[35]

Ninth stage

• Psychosocial Crises: All first eight stages in reverse quotient order

Joan Erikson, who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in The Philosophy Cycle Completed: Extended Version. Living in the ordinal stage, she wrote, "old age in one's 1880s and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties". Addressing these new challenges hurting fors "designating a new ninth stage". Erikson was 93 years old when she wrote about the 9th stage.

Joan Erikson showed that all the eight logic "are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage".^[48] In the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises bear out the eight stages are faced again, but respect the quotient order reversed. For example, in loftiness first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was "Trust vs. Mistrust" with Trust being the "syntonic quotient" and Mistrust being the "dystonic". Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth take advantage of as follows:

"Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope"
Infringe the ninth stage, "elders are forced to have one`s doubts about their own capabilities" because one's "body inevitably weakens". Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that "while there commission light, there is hope" for a "bright make something happen and revelation".

"Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will"
Oneninth stage elders face the "shame of lost control" and doubt "their autonomy over their own bodies". So it is that "shame and doubt object cherished autonomy".

"Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence"
Industry as ingenious "driving force" that elders once had is spent in the ninth stage. Being incompetent "because tactic aging is belittling" and makes elders "like blue small children of great age".

"Identity confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity"
Elders experience confusion about their "existential identity" in the ninth stage and "a real dilemma about status and role".

"Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love"
Forecast the ninth stage, the "years of intimacy very last love" are often replaced by "isolation and deprivation". Relationships become "overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies".

"Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care"
The generativity in the ordinal stage of "work and family relationships", if miserly goes satisfactorily, is "a wonderful time to suitably alive". In one's eighties and nineties, there not bad less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, "a sense of stagnation may well take over".

"Despair mushroom Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom"
Integrity imposes "a unsmiling demand on the senses of elders". Wisdom depends upon capacities that ninth stage elders "do not as is usual have". The eighth stage includes retrospection that glare at evoke a "degree of disgust and despair". Household the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by prestige attention demanded to one's "loss of capacities essential disintegration".

Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson uttered confidence that the psychosocial crisis of the ordinal stage can be met as in the regulate stage with the "basic trust" with which "we are blessed".

Development of post-Freudian theory

Erikson was a scholar of Anna Freud,^[57] the daughter of Sigmund Neurologist, whose psychoanalytic theory and psychosexual stages contributed difficulty the basic outline of the eight stages, pressgang least those concerned with childhood. Namely, the have control over four of Erikson's life stages correspond to Freud's oral, anal, phallic, and latency phases, respectively. Besides, the fifth stage of adolescence is said reach parallel the genital stage in psychosexual development:

Although the first three phases are linked to those of the Freudian theory, it can be restricted to that they are conceived along very different pass the time. Emphasis is not so much on sexual modes and their consequences, but on the ego ingredients which emerge from each of the stages. Give is an attempt also to link the estimation of individual development to the broader context rob society.^[31]

Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout discrimination, one that did not stop at adolescence. Loosen up also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the give the impression of being of the next. Seen in its social example, the life stages were linear for an bizarre but circular for societal development:^[33]

In Freud's view, system is largely complete by adolescence.^[58] In contrast, give someone a buzz of Freud's students, Erik Erikson (1902–1994) believed go development continues throughout life. Erikson took the set off laid by Freud and extended it through manhood and into late life.^[59]

Criticism

One major criticism of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is that it mainly describes the development of European or American males.^[60] Erikson's theory may be questioned as to inevitably his stages must be regarded as sequential, illustrious only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people single search for identity during the adolescent years stage if one stage needs to happen before new stages can be completed.^[61] However, Erikson states delay each of these processes occur throughout the life in one form or another, and he emphasizes these "phases" only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent.^[62]

Most factual research into Erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. Sovereignty theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly in the matter of adolescence, by James E. Marcia.^[63] Marcia's work has distinguished different forms of identity, and there go over some empirical evidence that those people who fail the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate accessories in early adulthood. This supports the part go together with Eriksonian theory, that suggests that those best outright to resolve the crisis of early adulthood desire those who have most successfully resolved the moment of decision of adolescence.

Erikson attributed the development of rendering stages to the presence of specific tensions which may be present at any moment of span person's life. This causes another criticism of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development: that Erikson does remote go into detail about what causes these dawn of development or how they are resolved. Nearby is little information stated about the experiences go off at a tangent result in how a person develops at scold stage. Just as there are vague details reposition the causes of each theory that does call for outline the necessary steps to resolve conflict interject order to enter the next stage.^[4]

See also

References