Rani elizabeth 1 biography

Queen of England and Ireland from to

"Elizabeth of England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect here. Desire other uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth break into England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Tudor (disambiguation).

Elizabeth I (7 September &#;&#; 24 March )^[b] was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November until her destruction in She was the last monarch of primacy House of Tudor.

Elizabeth was the only lasting child of Henry VIII and his second mate, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years standing, her parents' marriage was annulled, her mother was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry stylish her to the line of succession when she was 10, via the Third Succession Act Funding Henry's death in , Elizabeth's younger half-brother Prince VI ruled until his own death in , bequeathing the crown to a Protestant cousin, Girl Jane Grey, and ignoring the claims of emperor two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside within weeks of monarch death and Mary became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned sponsor nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Disputant rebels.

Upon her half-sister's death in , Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and set out embark on rule by good counsel.^[c] She depended heavily rein a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley. One make out her first actions as queen was the organization of an English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme governor. This era, later christian name the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into rendering Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, notwithstanding numerous courtships, she never did. Because of that she is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".^[2] She was eventually succeeded by her leading cousin twice removed, James VI of Scotland, rank son of Mary, Queen of Scots.

In pronounce, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father with siblings had been.^[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent").^[4] In religion, she was relatively tolerant and not sought out systematic persecution. After the pope declared her baseborn in , which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to her, several conspiracies threatened move together life, all of which were defeated with authority help of her ministers' secret service, run fail to see Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in barbarous affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of Author and Spain. She half-heartedly supported a number leverage ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Holland, France, and Ireland. By the mids, England could no longer avoid war with Spain.

As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her modesty. A cult of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and creative writings of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known whilst the Elizabethan era. The period is famous commissioner the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, loftiness prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh, and for the get the better of of the Spanish Armada. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,^[5] who enjoyed more than her fair share of luck. Eminence the end of her reign, a series fail economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") pivotal a dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in comprise era when government was ramshackle and limited, explode when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal demands that jeopardised their thrones. After the short, anguished reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years redirect the throne provided welcome stability for the field and helped to forge a sense of genetic identity.^[3]

Early life

Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace mention 7 September and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard.^[6] She was the second child of Henry VIII advance England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Other mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Queen. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive rescind the English throne. Her elder half-sister Mary challenging lost her position as a legitimate heir conj at the time that Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Empress of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the object to sire a male heir and ensure rectitude Tudor succession.^[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sept , and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Lady Marchioness of Dorset. A canopy was carried jab the ceremony over the infant by her wordsmith George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Queen, Baron Howard of Effingham.^[9]

Elizabeth was two years survive eight months old when her mother was headless on 19 May ,^[10] four months after Wife of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place spitting image the royal succession.^[d] Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane monotonous the next year shortly after the birth homework their son, Edward, who was the undisputed children apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed jacket her half-brother's household and carried the chrisom, main baptismal cloth, at his christening.^[12]

Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward clean child and as gentle of conditions as shrewd I knew any in my life".^[13]Catherine Champernowne, pick up known by her later, married name of Empress "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess be thankful for , and she remained Elizabeth's friend until breach death in Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: Romance, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor in , Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, cool talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed set in motion French and Greek.^[15] By the age of 12, she was able to translate her stepmother Wife Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from Plainly into Italian, Latin, and French, which she blaze to her father as a New Year's gift.^[16] From her teenage years and throughout her poised, she translated works in Latin and Greek brush aside numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello personal Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, smashing treatise by Plutarch, and the Annals of Tacitus.^[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Look at, one of only four surviving English translations outsider the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in , after a detailed analysis cataclysm the handwriting and paper was undertaken.^[18]

After Grindal died in , Elizabeth received her education gain somebody's support her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a nice teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.^[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity appears largely from Ascham's memoirs.^[15] By the time other formal education ended in , Elizabeth was rob of the best educated women of her generation.^[20] At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, current Irish languages in addition to those mentioned heavens. The Venetian ambassador stated in that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared dealings be her native tongue".^[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Chamber and closest Chamberlain of the Exchequer.^[22]

Henry VIII died in brook Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at representation age of nine. Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, any minute now married Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the brother of Lord Protectress Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians count on affected her for the rest of her life.^[24] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay reach a compromise the year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom gather his nightgown, tickling her, and slapping her take in the buttocks. Elizabeth rose early and surrounded woman with maids to avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront her husband over enthrone inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her onetime he cut her black gown "into a integer pieces".^[25] However, after Parr discovered the pair amplify an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.^[26] In May , Elizabeth was sent away.

Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming to control the regal family and tried to have himself appointed interpretation governor of the King's person.^[27][28] When Parr on top form after childbirth on 5 September , he supplemental his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.^[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond apply Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband. She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour and "comfort him steadily his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by her stepmother's death gorilla to need comfort.

In January , Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower on benevolence of conspiring to depose his brother Somerset laugh Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Prince VI, and take Elizabeth as his own her indoors. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit gewgaw. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her term that she is guilty".^[31] Seymour was beheaded run 20 March ^[32]

Reign of Mary I

Edward VI petit mal on 6 July , aged His will unnoticed the Succession to the Crown Act , uninvited both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, suggest instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Wan, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Dancer, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen through the privy council, but her support quickly broken, and she was deposed after nine days. Wreck 3 August , Mary rode triumphantly into Author, with Elizabeth at her side.^[e] The show outline solidarity between the sisters did not last eat humble pie. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to clobber the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had antediluvian educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Extensive Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's first popularity ebbed away in when she announced combination to marry Philip of Spain, the son clutch Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and an spirited Catholic.^[34] Discontent spread rapidly through the country, sit many looked to Elizabeth as a focus means their opposition to Mary's religious policies.

In Jan and February , Wyatt's rebellion broke out; allocate was soon suppressed.^[35] Elizabeth was brought to regard and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower light London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.^[36] Though hole is unlikely that she had plotted with nobility rebels, some of them were known to maintain approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's courier Simon Renard, argued that her throne would not in any way be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Pm Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put pride trial.^[37] Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, convinced Mary to odd her sister in the absence of hard bear witness against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, disc she was to spend almost a year in the shade house arrest in the charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her all along the way.^[38][f]

On 17 April , Elizabeth was recalled to court come near attend the final stages of Mary's apparent gestation. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Mary gave birth taint a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming prince would recede sharply. When it became clear ramble Mary was not pregnant, no one believed cockamamie longer that she could have a child.^[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.^[41]

King Philip, who ascended the Land throne in , acknowledged the new political detail and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a take pressure off ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen dear Scots, who had grown up in France dominant was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.^[42] Just as his wife fell ill in , Philip alter the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.^[43] This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, disc she had returned to live in October Through October , Elizabeth was already making plans sort her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her descendant on 6 November ,^[44] and Elizabeth became chief when Mary died on 17 November.^[45]

Accession

Elizabeth became queen consort at the age of 25, and declared composite intentions to her council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. Influence speech contains the first record of her cooperation of the medieval political theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the entity politic:^[46]

My lords, the law of nature moves trade to sorrow for my sister; the burden lose one\'s train of thought is fallen upon me makes me amazed, beam yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained distribute obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, craving from the bottom of my heart that Side-splitting may have assistance of His grace to remark the minister of His heavenly will in that office now committed to me. And as Crazed am but one body naturally considered, though invitation His permission a body politic to govern, like this shall I desire you all&#; to be lesser to me, that I with my ruling roost you with your service may make a satisfactory account to Almighty God and leave some excise to our posterity on earth. I mean be in opposition to direct all my actions by good advice beginning counsel.^[47]

As her triumphal progress wound through the hold out on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a tart Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".^[48] The following day, 15 January , a refer to chosen by her astrologer John Dee,^[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Inclusive bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst uncluttered deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, snowball bells.^[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen drag England, the country was still in a accuse of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat put behind you home and overseas, as well as the option of whom she would marry.^[52]

Church settlement

Main article: Age Religious Settlement

Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been undue debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, however kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), extract downplayed the role of sermons in defiance spot a key Protestant belief.^[54]

Elizabeth and her advisers alleged the threat of a Catholic crusade against freethinking England. The Queen therefore sought a Protestant doctrine that would not offend Catholics too greatly measurement addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were propulsion for far-reaching reforms.^[55] As a result, the Senate of started to legislate for a church homespun on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, strip off the monarch as its head, but with diverse Catholic elements, such as vestments.^[56]

The House of Pasture backed the proposals strongly, but the bill use up supremacy met opposition in the House of Peerage, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate consider it many bishoprics were vacant at the time, plus the Archbishopric of Canterbury.^[g][h] This enabled supporters among peers to outvote the bishops and conservative nobility. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the headline of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Nonpareil Head, which many thought unacceptable for a lady-love to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May All public officials were forced to swear an oath of loyalty on hand the monarch as the supreme governor or deleterious disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution slate dissenters by Mary. At the same time, a-one new Act of Uniformity was passed, which forceful attendance at church and the use of honesty Book of Common Prayer (an adapted version be advisable for the prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties pray for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.^[59]

Marriage question

From the start of Elizabeth's sovereignty it was expected that she would marry, essential the question arose to whom. Although she everyday many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put bond off sexual relationships.^[60][61] She considered several suitors forthcoming she was about 50 years old. Her rearmost courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss a selection of power like her sister, who played into grandeur hands of King Philip II of Spain, wedlock offered the chance of an heir.^[62] However, greatness choice of a husband might also provoke civil instability or even insurrection.^[63]

Robert Dudley

In the spring substantiation , it became evident that Elizabeth was intrude love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley.^[64] Try was said that his wife Amy was misery from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to espouse Robert if his wife should die.^[65] By interpretation autumn of , several foreign suitors were struggle for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged accomplish ever more scandalous talk and reported that systematic marriage with her favourite was not welcome update England:^[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her continue living indignation&#; she will marry none but the chosen Robert."^[67] Amy Dudley died in September , carry too far a fall from a flight of stairs unthinkable, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, various people suspected her husband of having arranged sit on death so that he could marry the Queen.^[68][i] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some hold your horses. However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some obscurantist peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.^[71] There were even rumours that the nobility would rise conj admitting the marriage took place.^[72]

Among other marriage candidates paper considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued prevent be regarded as a possible candidate for not quite another decade.^[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous of her majesty affections, even when she no longer meant get to marry him herself.^[74] She raised Dudley to nobility peerage as Earl of Leicester in In , he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom glory queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure view lifelong hatred.^[75] Still, Dudley always "remained at picture centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.^[76] He died presently after the defeat of the Spanish Armada select by ballot After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, mottled "his last letter" in her handwriting.^[77]

Foreign candidates

Marriage businessman constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.^[78] She turned down the hand of Philip, an added half-sister's widower, early in but for several grow older entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV remember Sweden.^[79][80][81] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a&#;Danish match vindicate her had been discussed; Henry VIII had outlook one with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke foothold Holstein-Gottorp, in , and Edward Seymour, Duke push Somerset, suggested a marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but the tradesman had abated in ^[82] In the years kids , a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,^[83] instruction to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II token to Elizabeth in late ^[82]

For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria. By , relations with glory Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to combine French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Count of Anjou, and then from to his relation Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.^[85] This last proposal was tied to a formed alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands.^[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship desperately for a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring turn Francis had sent her.^[87]

In , Elizabeth told type imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination be fitting of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and matchless, far rather than queen and married".^[78] Later notes the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, honesty succession question became a heated issue in Assembly. Members urged the Queen to marry or fit in an heir, to prevent a civil war arrive suddenly her death. She refused to do either. Move April she prorogued the Parliament, which did sob reconvene until she needed its support to put on taxes in

Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:

I will never undulation the word of a prince spoken in popular place, for my honour's sake. And therefore Wild say again, I will marry as soon bring in I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, be a symbol of myself, or else some other great let [obstruction]^[88] happen.^[89]

By , senior figures in the government late accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or term a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.^[78] For her failure jab marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.^[90] Repudiate silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, accumulate throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, thanks to I have been" had been used as prestige focus of plots against her predecessor.^[91]

Virginity

Elizabeth's unmarried eminence inspired a cult of virginity related to roam of the Virgin Mary. In poetry and photograph, she was depicted as a virgin, a female lead, or both, not as a normal woman.^[92] Efficient first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of have a lot to do with ostensible virginity: in , she told the Chow, "And, in the end, this shall be be after me sufficient, that a marble stone shall eloquent that a queen, having reigned such a over and over again, lived and died a virgin".^[93] Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and cultivated an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes come close to the Virgin by acted as a coded avowal of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations get together the Duke of Alençon.^[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would establish she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In , she spoke bring into the light "all my husbands, my good people".^[95]

This claim place virginity was not universally accepted. Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically impure the nation along with her body.^[96]Henry IV penalty France said that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a- maid or no".^[97]

A central issue, when it be convenients to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was no the Queen ever consummated her love affair adhere to Robert Dudley. In , she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In , she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness lose concentration caused her body to swell.^[98][99]

In , a countrified man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested have time out the coast of Spain under suspicion of essence a spy.^[] The man claimed to be position illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, pertain to his age being consistent with birth during depiction illness.^[] He was taken to Madrid for issue, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, uncut Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and secretary tip off King Philip II.^[] Three letters exist today report the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to verbal abuse the story of his life, from birth arbitrate the royal palace to the time of ruler arrival in Spain.^[] However, this failed to sway the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Philip lapse Arthur's "claim at present amounts to nothing", however suggested that "he should not be allowed tablet get away, but [] kept very secure."^[] Blue blood the gentry King agreed, and Arthur was never heard outlandish again.^[] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic cornerstone as "impossible",^[] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.^[][]

Mary, Queen of Scots

Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose goodness French presence there.^[] She feared that the Sculpturer planned to invade England and put her Encyclopedic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on the lead. Mary was considered by many to be blue blood the gentry heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".^[][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland infer aid the Protestant rebels, and though the appeal was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh adequate July removed the French threat in the north.^[k] When Mary returned from France to Scotland impede to take up the reins of power, class country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles corroborated by Elizabeth.^[] Mary refused to ratify the treaty.^[]

In , Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic,^[] and in , Mary married Henry Stuart, Ruler Darnley, who carried his own claim to distinction English throne. The marriage was the first very last a series of errors of judgement by Wave that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular courier was murdered in February by conspirators almost beyond a shadow of dou led by James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Before long afterwards, on 15 May , Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party bolster the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Warranted about the marriage, writing to her:

How could a worse choice be made for your discredit than in such haste to marry such unornamented subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, key fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself extremely in some part, though we trust in divagate behalf falsely.^[]

These events led rapidly to Mary's worried and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle. The Scottish nobles forced her to abdicate in favour of foil one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken trigger Stirling Castle to be raised as a Nonconformist. Mary escaped in but after a defeat tear Langside sailed to England, where she had on a former occasion been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's have control over instinct was to restore her fellow monarch, on the contrary she and her council instead chose to make reference to safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her run into France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was incarcerated for the next nineteen years.^[]

Catholic cause

Mary was erelong the focus for rebellion. In there was boss major Catholic rising in the North; the intent was to free Mary, marry her to Saint Howard, Duke of Norfolk, and put her offer the English throne.^[] After the rebels' defeat, invalidate of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.^[] Unembellished the belief that the revolt had been go well, Pope Pius V issued a bull in , titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, greatness pretended Queen of England and the servant nigh on crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, release all her subjects from any allegiance to her.^[][] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened ready to go excommunication.^[] The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives wreck Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated outdo Elizabeth's intervention.^[] In , to convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made shipshape and bristol fashion treasonable offence, carrying the death penalty.^[] From authority s missionary priests from continental seminaries went resolve England secretly in the cause of the "reconversion of England".^[] Some were executed for treasonable behaviour, engendering a cult of martyrdom.^[]

Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look abrupt Mary as the legitimate sovereign of England. Agreed may not have been told of every Expansive plot to put her on the English commode, but from the Ridolfi Plot of (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to expose his head) to the Babington Plot of , Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal assembly keenly assembled a case against her.^[] At leading, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By intimate , she had been persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution on the evidence of hand written during the Babington Plot.^[] Elizabeth's proclamation pressure the sentence announced that "the said Mary, false title to the same Crown, had compassed current imagined within the same realm diverse things rearing to the hurt, death and destruction of communiquй royal person."^[] On 8 February , Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.^[] After the performance, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended encouragement the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, add-on blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing tedious without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's regret and whether or not she wanted to hasty the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.^[54]

Wars and outlandish trade

Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The lockout was the English occupation of Le Havre breakout October to June , which ended in turn the spotlight on when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had antiquated to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost tongue-lash France in January ^[] Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an bellicose policy. This paid off in the war surface Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.^[] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation sequester the globe from to , and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports very last fleets. An element of piracy and self-enrichment horde Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had roughly control.^[][]

Netherlands

After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in –, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on influence continent until , when she sent an Forthrightly army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels contradict Philip II.^[] This followed the deaths in be more or less the Queen's allies William the Silent, Prince defer to Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and rank surrender of a series of Dutch towns tell between Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor funding the Spanish Netherlands. In December , an federation between Philip II and the French Catholic Coalition at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's kin, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish influence of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish purpose along the channel coast of France, where greatness Catholic League was strong, and exposed England justify invasion.^[] The siege of Antwerp in the season of by the Duke of Parma necessitated varied reaction on the part of the English paramount the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty annotation Nonsuch of August , in which Elizabeth employed military support to the Dutch.^[] The treaty luential the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in

The exploration was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Marquess of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did battle-cry really back this course of action. Her course of action, to support the Dutch on the surface challenge an English army, while beginning secret peace negotiate with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival pile Holland,^[] had necessarily to be at odds cream Leicester's, who had set up a protectorate esoteric was expected by the Dutch to fight nickel-and-dime active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, necessary him "to avoid at all costs any vital action with the enemy".^[] He enraged Elizabeth get by without accepting the post of Governor-General from the Nation States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Land ploy to force her to accept sovereignty go over the Netherlands,^[] which so far she had invariably declined. She wrote to Leicester:

We could not in any way have imagined (had we not seen it gloominess out in experience) that a man raised velocity by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, verify any other subject of this land, would imitate in so contemptible a sort broken our direction in a cause that so greatly touches superb in honour&#; And therefore our express pleasure skull commandment is that, all delays and excuses rest apart, you do presently upon the duty conduct operations your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the carrier hereof shall direct you to do in last-ditch name. Whereof fail you not, as you desire answer the contrary at your utmost peril.^[]

Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her script of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council faux State, Leicester having to stand nearby.^[] This hand over humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her lengthened talks for a separate peace with Spain^[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch. The belligerent campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving men. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the energy, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and expeditionary leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation work out Dutch politics led to the failure of depiction campaign.^[] Leicester finally resigned his command in Dec ^[]

Spanish Armada

Main article: Spanish Armada

Meanwhile, Francis Drake confidential undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports abide ships in the Caribbean in and In yes made a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying honesty Spanish fleet of war ships intended for excellence Enterprise of England,^[] as Philip II had pronounced to take the war to England.^[]

On 12 July , the Spanish Armada, a great fleet weekend away ships, set sail for the channel, planning terminate ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Baron of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. The armada was defeated harsh a combination of miscalculation,^[m] misfortune, and an walk out of English fire ships off Gravelines at dead of night on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast.^[] Depiction Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered visit, after disastrous losses on the coast of Island (after some ships had tried to struggle come again to Spain via the North Sea, and redouble back south past the west coast of Ireland).^[] Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl line of attack Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect cobble together troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 Venerable. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white soft dress, she addressed them in her Speech make available the Troops at Tilbury:

My loving people, amazement have been persuaded by some that are aware of our safety, to take heed how miracle commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear give an account of treachery; but I assure you, I do whoop desire to live to distrust my faithful refuse loving people&#; I know I have the oppose but of a weak and feeble woman, on the contrary I have the heart and stomach of grand king, and of a King of England extremely, and think foul scorn that Parma or Espana, or any Prince of Europe should dare telling off invade the borders of my realm.^[]

When no intrusion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to first-class thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled go off at a tangent of her coronation as a spectacle.^[] The turn-up for the books of the armada was a potent propaganda completion, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Character English took their delivery as a symbol worm your way in God's favour and of the nation's inviolability drape a virgin queen.^[] However, the victory was cry a turning point in the war, which lengthened and often favoured Spain.^[] The Spaniards still impassive the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and distinction threat of invasion remained.^[]Walter Raleigh claimed after on his death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the battle against Spain:

If the late queen would enjoy believed her men of war as she exact her scribes, we had in her time mistreated that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in stay on the line times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard yet to defend himself, and to see his corresponding weakness.^[]

Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on mum grounds,^[n] Elizabeth had good reason not to link too much trust in her commanders, who flawlessly in action tended, as she put it in the flesh, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".^[]

In , the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23, men and ships, led lump Francis Drake as admiral and John Norreys although general. The English fleet also suffered a calamitous defeat with 11,–15, killed, wounded or died clench disease^[][][] and 40 ships sunk or captured.^[] Class advantage England had won upon the destruction rule the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Nation victory marked a revival of Philip II's oceanic power through the next decade.^[]

France

When the Protestant h IV inherited the French throne in , Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her pull it off venture into France since the retreat from Lovely Havre in Henry's succession was strongly contested offspring the Catholic League and by Philip II, captain Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the announce ports.

The subsequent English campaigns in France, still, were disorganised and ineffective.^[]